Relocation minor child South Africa Advocate Abduroaf Spain Madrid

Posted on 11 February 2025 by Telelaw

Paternity disputes and Scientific DNA Testing in Child Legal Matters
Paternity disputes are not uncommon in our courts of law. What sparks them varies, however, all disputes are messy. For one, the mere allegation that he is not the father of the child may directly or indirectly affect the dignity of the mother, and that of the child. In other words, it is suggested that she had more than one sexual partner at the time, and the child was born from such a relationship. Nonetheless, the issue can speedily be resolved through scientific DNA testing.

Paternity – Legal Settings

There are two common legal settings where a parent (or alleged parent) would dispute paternity. The one would be in a child maintenance dispute, where the father alleges that he is not the biological father of the child, and therefore cannot be ordered to pay child maintenance. The other situation would be in a child custody or visitation dispute. Here the mother would allege that the man is not the father, or he denies paternity.

Paternity Dispute Scenarios

There are other scenarios where paternity can become an issue. One would be in the case of inheritance. A parent would allege that a child is an heir of the person who passed on. Another would be in the case of marriage. What happens if there is a rumour your intended bride is your half-sister? These disputes and many others can only be resolved with DNA or scientific testing. Below we further deal with the question as to whether a court can force a parent and a child to submit to a blood test. That is where It gets interesting. The latter scenario laid the seed for researching and writing this post. Read on to learn more. You may learn something new.

The legal presumption of pater est quem nuptiae demonstrant

Now let’s start with the common law. There is a phrase or common law presumption, “Pater est quem nuptiae demonstrant”. It is a Latin phrase which states that the father is he who is married to the mother. In other words, if the child was born whilst the father was married to the mother, it is presumed that he is the father. Therefore, unless the father or mother can prove otherwise, every child born from a marriage is presumed to be the child of the husband. If the husband or wife disputes it, they must prove it. This may become an issue during divorce proceedings. The wife may allege that the husband is the father of the child and claim maintenance from him. He would then in his plea state that he is not the father and accordingly not responsible to pay child support. At the divorce trial, he would have to prove that he is not the father. A simple way of resolving the dispute would be through a blood test or scientific DNA testing. Now let’s move on to written law, in legislation and learn some more.

The Law on paternity disputes in relation to minor children

There are two pieces of legislation that applies in relation to paternity issues regarding minor children. It is the Maintenance Act 99 of 1998, in relation to child maintenance matters, and the Children’s Act 38 of 2005, in relation to child legal matters in general. We shall, however, start with the Children’s Act 38 of 2005.

The Children’s Act – Paternity Disputes

The Children’s Act has two (2) sections dealing with paternity issues. The first deals with the Presumption of paternity in respect of a child born out of wedlock and the other, the refusal to submit to the taking of blood samples. We quote them next.

Section 36: Presumption of paternity in respect of a child born out of wedlock

“If in any legal proceedings in which it is necessary to prove that any particular person is the father of a child born out of wedlock it is proved that that person had sexual intercourse with the mother of the child at any time when that child could have been conceived, that person is, in the absence of evidence to the contrary which raises a reasonable doubt, presumed to be the biological father of the child.”

Section 37: Refusal to submit to the taking of blood samples

“If a party to any legal proceedings in which the paternity of a child has been placed in issue has refused to submit himself or herself, or the child, to the taking of a blood sample in order to carry out scientific tests relating to the paternity of the child, the court must warn such party of the effect which such refusal might have on the credibility of that party.”

Create Reasonable Doubt

Looking at the aforementioned sections of the Children’s Act, in a paternity dispute, it is presumed that if parties had sexual intercourse at any time when that child could have been conceived, the male is the father. The father can disprove this by raising reasonable doubt. This can be done by proving that he was sterile, or through scientific DNA testing. If another man comes and says he is the father; we are sure some reasonable doubt may be created. According to the next section in the Children’s Act, if a party refuses to submit to a paternity test, it could affect his or her credibility. Therefore, if someone is truly a parent, or not a parent, and has nothing to fear from the truth, he or she should submit themselves to a blood test. Failing which, it might affect that person’s credibility in the matter. The court could then infer that he or she is lying. Now let’s move on to the Maintenance Act in child maintenance matters.

The Maintenance Act – Paternity Disputes

In our experience, it is the offices of the maintenance courts that deals mostly with paternity disputes. When the father gets called to the maintenance court, to pay child support for a child he does not have a relationship with, in some cases, he would invoke the paternity defence. In other words, he would dispute the paternity of the child. In such a case, he would request a paternity test. Section 21 of the Maintenance Act deals with orders relating to scientific tests regarding paternity. Here we quote the relevant section next.

21 Orders relating to scientific tests regarding paternity

(1) If the maintenance officer is of the opinion- (a) that the paternity of any child is in dispute;(b) that the mother of such child, as well as the person who is allegedly the father of such child, are prepared to submit themselves as well as such child, if the mother has parental authority over the said child, to the taking of blood samples in order to carry out scientific tests regarding the paternity of that child; and (c) that such mother or such person or both such mother and such person are unable to pay the costs involved in the carrying out of such scientific tests, the maintenance officer may at any time during the enquiry in question, but before the maintenance court makes any order under section 16, request the maintenance court to hold an enquiry referred to in subsection (2). (2) If the maintenance officer so requests, the maintenance court may in a summary manner enquire into- (a) the means of the mother of the child as well as the person who is allegedly the father of the child; and (b) the other circumstances which should in the opinion of the maintenance court be taken into consideration. (3) At the conclusion of the enquiry referred to in subsection (2), the maintenance court may- (a) make such provisional order as the maintenance court may think fit relating to the payment of the costs involved in the carrying out of the scientific tests in question, including a provisional order directing the State to pay the whole or any part of such costs; or (b) make no order. (4) When the maintenance court subsequently makes any order under section 16, the maintenance court may- (a) make an order confirming the provisional order referred to in subsection (3) (a); or (b) set aside such provisional order or substitute therefor any order which the maintenance court may consider just relating to the payment of the costs involved in the carrying out of the scientific tests in question.

Costs of Scientific DNA Testing in Child Maintenance Matters

Looking at the aforementioned section, it does not say much about the evidentiary aspect of paternity testing. It basically deals with the costs thereof. However, what is clear is that the Maintenance Court considers issues of paternity disputes and deals with it. Nonetheless, the aforementioned provisions of the Children’s Act would apply to matters in the Maintenance Court. Next, we move on to the issue of whether or not a court can force a party to submit to a paternity test.

Forced or Compelled Paternity Tests

The two pieces of legislation referred to above does not assist us much with regard to the issue of a court forcing a parent to submit to a paternity test. We now need to consider the case law. In other words, what do the courts have to say about this? Most of the older court decisions, do not agree with forcing a parent to submit to a blood/paternity test. However, it seems that things have changed in the past decade. Let us refer to the judgment of LB v YD 2009 (5) SA 463 (T), a Transvaal Provincial Division matter handed down by Judge Murphy less than 10 years ago.

LB v YD 2009 (5) SA 463 (T).

One of the issues, in this case, was that the mother did not want to submit herself to a blood test. Her view, amongst other things, was that it was not in the child’s best interests. The father argued that it was his right to know whether or not he is the father of the child. He further argued that his right to the certainty of paternity outweighs any inconvenience that might be suffered by the mother and the child. With regard to the law, the Court stated the following: [18] The law on the topic of compulsory blood or DNA testing in parental disputes is not satisfactory. There is no legislation which specifically regulates the position in civil cases. Judicial pronouncements on the topic have not been unanimous in their approach to the issues and have differed on the proper legal basis for ordering tests. In relation to the child the courts have relied on their inherent jurisdiction as upper guardian, while in relation to the non-consenting adult some judges have invoked the inherent jurisdiction of a court to regulate its own procedures while others have refused to do so. In all cases the courts have been mindful of the need on the one hand to protect the privacy and bodily integrity of those to be subjected to tests, but on the other hand have asserted the court’s role to discover the truth whenever possible and to make use of scientific methods for that purpose. [23] In short, I agree with those judges and commentators who contend that as a general rule the more correct approach is that the discovery of truth should prevail over the idea that the rights of privacy and bodily integrity should be respected – see Kemp ‘Proof of Paternity: Consent or Compulsion’ (1986) 49 THRHR 271 at 279 – 81. I also take the position, and I will return to this more fully later, that it will most often be in the best interests of a child to have any doubts about true paternity resolved and put beyond doubt by the best available evidence.

[47] The present case is one in which a clearing of the air is called for. Both parties have at various times admitted and denied that the applicant is the biological father. The respondent was intimate with a second party, her husband, within the period of possible conception. The child is barely 1 year old and thus there is no established relationship that might be unduly disturbed or harmed by a determination of non-paternity. If the applicant is established to be the father, the child will benefit in time from knowing the truth and from the applicant’s commitment to her financial wellbeing. The possible stigma of a disputed paternity will also be removed. And, furthermore, legislative safeguards exist for the assignment and monitoring of appropriate parental rights and responsibilities to the applicant, should that prove permissible. I accordingly consider that it will be in the best interests of the child that paternity be scientifically determined and resolved at this early stage. [48] I agree that the order sought by the applicant is the one that should be granted. It is ordered as follows:

The respondent is ordered to submit herself and her minor child Y to DNA tests for the purpose of determining whether the applicant is the biological father of the child Y within 30 days of this order.
Prayers 2 and 3 of the notice of motion are postponed sine die.
The applicant is ordered to pay the costs of the tests referred to in D para 1 of this order.
The costs of this application are reserved.

The numbers in the square brackets denote the number of the paragraph you would find it in the judgment should you decide to make use of it. We agree with Judge Murphy. It is clear that the Courts can and should compel parents and children to submit to a blood test/DNA test when it is in the child’s best interests. Each case is different, and whereby a compelled blood test/DNA test would be warranted in one scenario, it may not be in the other. Nonetheless, with modern technology at our disposal, a simple paternity test is currently less intrusive than it was in the past.

Posted on 11 February 2025 by Telelaw

Frequently Asked Questions on Child Custody – Cape Town
[caption id="attachment_7080" align="alignleft" width="188"] Advocate Muhammad Abduroaf – Advocate of the High Court South Africa[/caption] We hold a wealth of knowledge on family legal matters, in relation to South African law. This includes issues and questions surrounding child custody, divorce and child maintenance. Feel free to browse through the question and answers below. Should you not find the answer to a child custody question you are looking for, feel free to post your divorce question here. For more q uestions on child custody, visit this page.

Can you change the baby’s last name without the father’s consent?

No, you require his consent. If he does not want to give consent, then you may approach a court of law. This answer is based on the presumption that the father has parental responsibilities and rights over the child.

Do I have parental rights if I am not on the birth certificate?

Yes, it is possible that you have.

How do you change your last name on your birth certificate?

You need to apply to the Department of Home Affairs.

How do I apply for child maintenance in South Africa?

You should approach the maintenance court.

Can you change your child’s surname?

Yes, you can. Both parents should consent.

How do I change my child’s surname in South Africa?

You need to apply to the Department of Home Affairs.

How much is the basic rate of child maintenance?

There is no basic rate. It depends on the income and expenses of both parents and the needs of the child.

What are your rights as a father?

To form part of the child’s life.

Can you put your baby up for adoption without the father’s consent?

No, you cannot.

Can a mother keep the child away from the father?

She may only with very good reason.

Can a father take a child away from its mother?

He may only do so for a very good reason and in the child’s best interests.

Can a mother give up her parental rights?

Yes, she can.

What age do you stop paying child maintenance?

18. This is when the child is an adult.

What makes a child legitimate?

If both parents were married when the child was born or after. However, the term legitimate and illegitimate is frowned upon.

How do I get sole legal custody of my child?

You need to apply to the court.

Can you get child support if the father’s name is not on the birth certificate?

Yes, you can.

Can a parent take a child away from the other parent?

Only if it is truly in the child’s best interests.

Can you get child support if you have joint custody?

Yes, you can.

Can a parent take a child out of South Africa without permission of the other parent?

No, a parent cannot.

Can a mother take the child from the father?

No, she may not. If she does, she would have to have a valid reason.

What is considered parental kidnapping?

If a parent takes the child from the primary caregiver without his or her permission.

Can a police officer enforce a child custody order?

They may if ordered to.

What are your rights as a father?

To form part of a child’s life.

Who has custody of a child when the parents are not married?

Both parent if they form part of the child’s life. This is on condition that they both hold parental responsibilities and rights. In short, if they meaningfully partook in the child’s life, they hold parental responsibilities and rights.

Can you change the baby’s last name without the father’s consent?

No, you require both parent’s consent. This is especially so if both parents are holders of parental responsibilities and rights over the child.

Do I have parental rights if I am not on the birth certificate?

Yes, you do. If you meaningfully partook in the child’s life you have those rights. Here we refer to paying child support or proving support. We are also referring to you spending time with the child.

How do you change your last name on your birth certificate?

You apply to Home Affairs. Both parents have to give consent if they are co-holders of parental responsibilities and rights. If they do not give consent, then a court application has to be lodged.

How do I apply for child maintenance in South Africa?

You approach the maintenance court. There is a maintenance court in every magisterial jurisdiction in South Africa. You should approach on where you and the child resides, or where you work.

What is visitation rights?

The right to see your child or have contact with him or her. Visitation rights are usually every second weekend and during school holidays.

What rights does a father have to a child born out of wedlock?

To form part of the child’s life. In other words, the same rights as a father of a child born in wedlock. This is of course on condition that he meaningfully formed part of the child’s life since birth.

How can a father get custody of his child?

He should apply to the court. The court would look into what is in the child’s best interests.

What percentage of mothers get custody?

Mother’s are usually the primary caregivers of young children.

How do you get custody of a child without a lawyer?

You can approach the court yourself.

What is an unfit mother?

A mother who does not act in the child’s best interests.

Can a mother keep the child away from the father?

No, she may not. If the mother does that, the father can enforce his rights by approaching a competent court.

How do you apply for full custody of a child?

You approach the court. You may approach the Children’s Court or the High Court.

What percentage of fathers get custody?

A large amount. Each case has its own merits.

What are your rights as a father?

To form part of a child’s life. He also has responsibilities to care and guide the child.

Can you change your child’s surname?

Yes, you can. However, you require the consent of both parent’s holding parental responsibilities and rights.

How does a judge determine custody of a child?

The judge looks at what is in the best interests of the child. There is no pre-determined preference for the father or mother.

How can you get custody of your child?

You should apply to the court. The court would listen to both parents and decide what is best for the child.

What is full custody of a child?

Full custody means that you fully care for the child.

How much is the basic rate of child maintenance?

There is no basic rate. It depends on the specific circumstances of each case. You look at what the parent’s earn and the needs of the children.

Can a mother take her child away from the father?

She may only do that if it is in the child’s best interests. However, she may not go against a court order. If there is a court order in place, she would have to apply to have it varied.

Can a parent take a child away from the other parent?

No, a parent may not do so. If there is a court order in place, such order must first be changed.

How do I change my child’s surname in South Africa?

You need to apply at the Department of Home Affairs. Both parents should give consent. If consent is unreasonably withheld, a court application must be lodged.

How do you file for full custody of your child in Cape Town, South Africa?

You may approach the High Court of the Children’s Court. Each court has a different procedure.

What is joint custody with primary residence?

Joint custody means both parents have equal say in the child’s life and care for the child in that manner. Primary residence is where the child primarily resides. If the child lives with the father during the week, and only sees the mother on weekends, then his home is the primary residence.